The History of the Rural-Government Conflict pt. 1-The First Settlements
Settling America
The principal concern of most of the American settlers between 1607-1640 was simply survival. These settlers were to some extent adventurists, but very few were of farmstock. They were mostly town dwellers, merchants, but not people who had been thought of as toilers. But they became invested to a degree in farming, at least two principal products—maize, which would be called corn. Corn to the Englishmen was what Americans would call wheat, but to a Scotsman or an Irishmen corn was oats, and when rice was later found to be the grain staple in Java the English would say it was “the only corn grown in Java”. Corn, essentially was grain that was the primary food substance of a people and in the Americas, maize simply followed suit and was called corn, Especially since the soil did not initially support growing what we now call wheat (or barley, a derivative of wheat) or oats. But the most of their foodstuff was not “farmed, but hunted or fished, or gathered as berries. To a large extent these early American colonists reverted to becoming hunter-gatherers. Some livestock was brought, but it mostly ran free, their was little knowledge of husbandry. Cattle became somewhat scrawny but was sometimes shot for game, but wild pigs flourished on acorns and both Natives and the settlers began hunting them. Even horses were not maintained and allowed to basically wander for their own upkeep because the settlers could not afford to support them.
But there was a crop that they did grow and that was tobacco. The Spanish had already introduced tobacco to Europe and the demand was high, so by growing small amounts of tobacco the settlers could purchase axes and hoes and pottery, and most importantly for hunting, guns and ammunition. Of the one-hundred and forty-four first settlers in Virginia only thirty-eight survived that first year, when the colony was “saved” by the arrival of new inhabitants in 1608. Things improved only slightly, however, and by 1622 over 6000 souls who had set sail had actually arrived in the Virginia colony there were only 2000 of those arrivees that were still alive. But by 1622 those 2000 colonists managed to harvest ten thousand pounds of tobacco for export and to finally turn a profit for the bickering directors of the Virginia Company stockholders. Alas, it was not to be the intended success that had allowed the companies to send forth the colonists in the first place. . A large, coordinated raid by Natives attacked their shelter and took much of the tobacco as well as killing 350 people in a single day. Once again (though not yet written), Panglossian optimism fell to the wayside of reality.
Why he wanted the American colonies that were such a drain I do not know, but at this point, James I disbanded the Virginia Company and took over the colonies under direct royal control. But before disbanding the company, in 1620, one last ship of passengers was sent by the company, the Mayflower, that was blown off coarse and landed at Plymouth Rock. There's a lot of confusion in most American minds about the Pilgrims (strict Calvinists who thought only they and those who believed as they did were preordained to salvation while others would perish in eternity) and the Puritans. The Puritans were not “follow-up colonists” to New England like the companies annual and semi-annual ventures to Virginia. The Mayflower were part of the Virginia colony and the religion was not the same at all. Furthermore, most of those who arrived on the Mayflower were not even Pilgrims, (Separatists) that were one branch of Puritanism that did not want to reform the English Church, but separate from it. Most of those aboard the Mayflower, however, were exiles from England. Having found themselves in an uncharted environment, they debated a few days whether to go on to Virginia, but they decided to go on their own, and without any official grants or title to their settlement, they sailed from Cape Cod to Plymouth rock and departed ship to began their own settlement as independent from both the Virginia Company and from England whom they had already been previously exiled. They fared better than the the first settlers in Jamestown. Somewhat. Almost half managed to make it through the winter (50 of 102).
Despite his father’s frustration with the Virginia Company, Charles I permitted the incorporation of the Massachusetts Bay Company in 1630 and a flotilla of non-separatist Puritans totalling a thousand settlers set forth to establish the Massachusetts colony in Boston. Eventually their numbers would overrun the Plymouth Rock colony and they would be incorporated into the Massachusetts Colony. With a dozen years these Puritans would begin a civil war in England that would overthrow Charles I. While the Plymouth Rock colonists were not originally farmers before immigrating, they did invest a little more effort in sustaining themselves with farming a greater variety of foodstuffs. At first they considered themselves “holier” than the “heathen” natives and even their non-separatist compatriots that had sailed with them, but as they began to bury their dead and those heathens gathered around them in support, the distinction became less clear in their minds, not only amongst themselves, but also with the natives. Had not the new settlers arrived ten years hence, the history of New England could have been different because the Plymouth settlers joined in harmony with the natives, and often worked with them in order to survive. Thus our first Thanksgiving was a real thanksgiving for their shared commerce with the natives that had enabled their survival.
This would not be the case with the settlers that came to Boston. The Puritans, while Calvinist, were quite a different type of Calvinist, much less influenced by the doctrine of preordination (though they believed in preordination, they believed one’s works and one’s station determined whether one was of the elite); and much more influenced by the Calvinist state that had taken over the reigns of government in Geneva. They saw no difference between rule of the righteous and in fact thought that only the righteous should rule. The 1000 that arrived in the first ships had expanded to 20,000 within a decade. And while some agriculture was practiced it was mostly done by indentured and a larger contingent of negro slaves than existed at the time in the south. “Lucky” slaves and indentured were used as servants. (Just how lucky those slaves thought they were to be servants is another story altogether). In fact a great many indentured were among the initial one thousand settlers. Many of the colonists were already wealthy and were not intent on dirtying their hands with anything more than demanding obedience and stifling any and all dissent. Their greater initial wealth enabled their greater survival and their greater financial wealth gave the access to greater wealth and closer trade connections with their wealthier backers in England. But dissent to their rule was not tolerated.
When I was in school I learned that one of its ministers in Salem named Roger Williams left the colony and founded Rhode Island as a colony where people were free to worship according to their conscious. Well that is not quite the truth. Roger Williams was Puritan from head to toe and no more thought dissent from the Puritan ideology should be tolerated any more than any other of his ilk. But he was wise enough (perhaps) that he foresaw a problem with dissent from the state as not necessary co-equal to dissent from the church. If he expected his church members to obey every iota of the canon, he began to suggest the state-church control would begin to encourage dissent within the church. He was not exactly defrocked and not exactly exiled, but it was “advised” to him in quite strong terms that there was some unsettled land free of any government patents in the Narragansett Bay area. The sin of Roger Williams was not that he believed in religious toleration but that he believed that state control of the church and enforcing church law upon all would contaminate the select believers with the sins of the lay non-select believers. Yet out of this the first American concepts of religious toleration did emerge. Eventually Williams obtained a charter in 1644 for the settlements in Rhode Island and in 1663 this charter was renewed as a separate colony with the right of religious freedom to all settlers granted in its charter.
However this was not a land grant to Williams alone but a grant that guaranteed complete religious freedom to the petitioners John Clarke, Benjamin Arnold, William Brenton, William Codington, Nicholas Easton, William Boulston, John Porter, John Smith, Samuel Gorton, John Weeks, Roger Williams, Thomas Olney, Gregory Dexter, John Cogshall, Joseph Clarke, Randall Holden, John Greene, John Roome, Samuel Wildbore, William Field, James Barker, Richard Tew, Thomas Harris, and William Dyer. When Williams took himself off to his new home he wasn’t really leading any large congregation of followers. If that had been the case, then the “advice” to go elsewhere probably would not have been given, he more than likely would have been fated to a less tolerable outcome. Williams quartered with the Natives and learned how to cultivate fields by the natives who assisted him, as they had done with the settlers of Plymouth. Others seeking escape from the tyranny of the religious state began to immigrate into the area as well, probably without the advice, but found it to be a safe haven to migrate to. Anne Hutchinson followed in the same year and started farms on Aquidneck Island raising sheep and cattle. She did have a larger group that followed with her and so their farms spread out across the island. These early settlers had by and large, however, coexisted peacefully with the Natives and were not afraid to labor themselves whether in growing crops or their husbandry activities. By the 1660’s they had taken over much of the state, a large export business of horses, wool, supported by a shipbuilding industry of over two hundred ships caused a backlash by the Natives. Organized into a coalition of tribes by Potemacomet, sachem of the Pokanoket. His father had been friendly with the Plymouth Rock colony, but by now of course that had been overrun. Pokanoket, commonly called King Phillip because of his family’s long relationship with the settlers, began what is sometimes referred to as King Philip’s War sometimes thought to be the first Indian War. During this war that took place between 1675-1676 most of the settlers in Rhode Island were wiped out except for those along Aquidneck Island. But by 1718 the settlers had returned and Rhode Island had resumed its trade, its husbandry and large tracts of land were now devoted to growing potatoes, a crop imported from Ireland.
Rhode Island did receive a charter from the crown. Another colony, one that is largely forgotten to have ever existed was the New Haven Colony. Founded by Puritan leader John Davenport and wealthy merchant Theophilus Eaton who invested three thousand pounds into the venture, they set forth towards Boston, but then sailed southward and founded the New Haven Colony. Unfortunately their “deed” negotiated with natives was of rocky land and of little use for farming. The colonists attempted to expand beyond its original settlement, at one point even attempting to invade Philadelphia but were repelled. Their one ship, loaded with beaver skins and grain simply disappeared , probably sank, but a legend developed around the ship and that legend would formulate the basis for Longfellow’s poem The Phantom Ship. They created a self-governing theocracy where only the landowners of the towns, called plantations had voting rights. All laborers in the fields, or indentured, were not entitled to the participate in the governance. Theophilus Eaton became the chief magistrate. Believing the bible did not mention juries, justice was administered by the magistrate dictated by theocratic rather than common English principles of law. But apart from whatever deed granted to their settlements by the natives, they failed to achieve an official charter from England granting their rights to their settlements. Cromwell had wanted Davenport and Eaton to settle in Ireland for substantial grants of land, but they had stubbornly clung to their New England plantations. By the time of Cromwell’s death,the Connecticut colony was expanding towards them and did have a charter that extended to the Atlantic. Desperate to maintain their independence they now sought official recognition of their colony, but Charles II was seeking to punish the three regicidal judges who had signed the death warrant of his father and they had fled to the New Haven Colony and were being protected by John Davenport in caves just north of the New Haven Plantation. The original settlers had resided in these caves before establishing the colonial plantations. The Connecticut charter allowed for “sober dissent” to the Puritan dominance, but the New Haven colony did not. The economic failures of their only seagoing ship and the flawed Philadelphia adventure, as well as their granting refuge to the regicidal judges and the death of Eaton himself, left them rather friendless in England, and they failed to received a charter for their lands that were determined to be mere squatter’s occupancy. However a group led by Robert Treat, refusing to accept the leftist leaning theocratic tendencies of the Connecticut colony that they were now incorporated into fled to the New Jersey colony and were allowed to establish the colony of the “New Work” (Newark), partly as a reward for having supported Stuyvesant’s claims to authority in New Jersey, when the colony had attempted to establish themselves as the New Haven Colony.
New Jersey itself seems to be little understood. We all know New York began as Dutch settlements by the Dutch East India Company but few seem to realize that they also claimed New Jersey in conjunction with New Netherlands. The Dutch based their claims on the journeys and explorations of an Englishmen, Henry Hudson, while the English based their claims to North America by similar explorations of the Italian, Giovanni Caboto (John Cabot.) Go figure. But not only the Dutch claimed the land via Hudson, but both the Swedes and Finns did so as well, and sent colonists to the New Jersey coast as well. This created an early conflict that never really resolved itself for some sixty years between the Dutch claim to New Jersey as part of the New Netherlands and those of New Sweden established by Johan Björnsson Printz in 1638. Exactly what role the Finns played in the conflict I am uncertain because apart from establishing settlements I’ve been unable to ascertain any role they played between New Sweden and New Netherlands. (Although I’m sure there must be some who do). Although both the Swedes and the Dutch both had colonies and both claimed they had purchased lands from the Lenape (which was only one of the Native groups in the regions) it was not until 1660 that Bergen became the first established community in the region when Stuyvesant claimed to have purchased most of New Jersey from the Natives. Nevertheless the Swedish and Dutch had contested the region and the Swedes claim back to at least 1609 when it appears the very first Swedish settlement had been attempted, only two years after Jamestown and well before either Plymouth Rock or the Massachusetts Bay Colonies. But the Dutch had already established several factories along the Delaware that produced manufactured goods from the raw materials from New Netherlands. Printz built the forts of Christina in the north and on both sides of the Delaware as well as Nya Elfsborg (now Salem) and established the settlements of Swedesboro and what would be come known as Bridgeport. This contest would continue until 1655 when the Swedish would lose control and the Dutch would ascend to primacy in the region. Nine years later the English sent a fleet led by Richard Nicolls into New York harbor and the Dutch surrendered the New Netherlands to the British, deciding at that time not to oppose the English takeover and Nicholls assumed the governorship of both New Amsterdam and New Netherlands and of course when Charles II placed his brother, the Duke of York over much of the North American territories, New York became the new name of the region. But that was not exactly the end of the matter, the Dutch decided to recontest the region and hostilities broke out again and the Dutch were eventually to successfully reclaim the territory. Not until the Treaty of Westminster in 1674 did the Dutch ultimately relinquish all title to their colonies in New Netherlands. But like the Dutch, the English never viewed the region that was to become NewJersey as a separate colony. But when James, the Duke of York, was granted the colonies as part of his York territories that extended into the new world, he rewarded two supporters to governorships and the region below the Hudson that was the Delaware region was given to the control to George Carteret. Carteret was primarily at the time in charge of Jersey in the Channel Islands. To entice settlers, the two proprietors (the other being being Lord Berkeley) decided to sell “quitrents” or areas of land that would be paid for by rents and to grant religious freedom to any settler and to offer settlers the imported use of slaves to develop their quitrents. The two proprietors appointed Philip Carteret to become the first governor of the New Jersey region. But the north Jersey region that was involved in industry and the former Swedish colony were still somewhat isolated and Philip Carteret had difficulty in collecting the quitrents for the two proprietors. Berkeley ended up selling his share to two quakers who then conflicted with each other until William Penn was brought in to settle the dispute between the two Quakers.
But even though Philip Carteret was the “governor” of the lands granted to George Carteret and to Lord Berkely, he was not the governor of a separate colony, but a region within the colony. Until 1738 when Lewis Morris became the first royal governor of New York they had no official standing as an independent colony. Whether Morris, or his successors were ever completely independent of the governor of New York remained a matter of internal dispute for the next forty years. By the time of the continental congress and the war against England both the New Jersey governor and the New Jersey delegation to the continental congress were more or less under the peonage of the New York delegation that was opposed to the war and to independence. But this only represented a third of the New Jersey populace, another third couldn’t care less and really wanted nothing to do with either side in the war. But New Jersey, lying near the center of the colonies,and between Philadelphia and the city of New York, was not located in a position for non-involvement. More of the battles of the revolution took place in New Jersey than in any other state. New Jersey needed to decide its destiny because the destiny of the country and its future as well as the very independence of the Americas, were being fought upon its lands. By mid-June 1776 most of the New Jersey delegation had withdrawn from the continental congress. Congress at the time made these resolutions:
3. Resolved, That, in the opinion of this Congress, the said William Franklin, Esquire, has discovered himself to be an enemy to the liberties of this country; and that measures ought to be immediately taken for securing the person of the said William Franklin, Esquire.
4. Resolved, That, in the opinion of this Congress, all payments of money on account of salary, or otherwise, to the said William Franklin, Esquire, as Governor, ought from henceforth to cease; and that the Treasurers of this Province shall account for the moneys in their hands to this Congress, or to the future Legislature of this Colony.
Resolved, That the following order do issue to Colonel Nathaniel Heard,2 of the first battalion of Middlesex County:
The Provincial Congress of New Jersey, reposing great confidence in your zeal and prudence, have thought fit to entrust to your care the execution of the enclosed resolves. It is the desire of Congress that this necessary business be conducted with all the delicacy and tenderness which the nature of the business can possibly admit. For this end you will find among the papers the form of a written parole, in which there is left a blank space for you to fill up, at the choice of Mr. Franklin, with the name of Princeton, Bordentown, or his own farm at Rancocus. When he shall have signed the parole, the Congress will rely upon his honour for the faithful performance of his engagements; but should he refuse to sign the parole, you are desired to put him under strong guard, and keep him in close custody, until the further order of this Congress. Whatever expense may be necessary for this service will be cheerfully defrayed by the Congress. We refer to your discretion what means to use for that purpose; and you have full power and authority to take to your aid whatever force you may require.
1. The first resolution carried on Friday afternoon, June 14; the other three were passed the following day. None of the resolutions was adopted unanimous- ly, but all were voted by comfortable margins: 38-11, 41-10, 42-10, and 47-3 respectively. The roll calls are deleted from the resolutions.
Congress then more or less at this point, selected new delegates to come from Jersey who would thereafter favor the independence resolution that had been introduced on June 7th by Richard Henry Lee. As Lincoln would later do and cast aside the government of Maryland that had voted for secession and replaced them with one that voted too remain in the union, the Continental Congress instituted an overthrow of the governorship of New Jersey. The new delegation arrived and declared that not only were they definitely not a sub-colony of New York, they became the first colony to declare themselves “a state of the United States of America”. They would also be the third state to sign the constitution and the very first to ratify the bill of rights. But during the constitutional convention itself, not only did New Jersey offer the “New Jersey” plan as an alternative plan to the Virginia Plan brought by Madison and the Virginia delegation, and even though the NewJersey Plan was not adopted wholesale, every single compromise that was eventually adapted into part of the constitution was supported by the New Jersey delegation before it was ultimately written into the document. The constitution might rightly be considered the Constitution that New Jersey Brought Us and yet none of us seem to learn in our history texts the history of the most unusually established colony of all of the original colonies. New Jersey was never actually a proprietorship, and when it was attempted to established it as one, it flopped and was sold by the proprietors. It is the only north American colony originally founded by the Swedish. It is the only colony to fight internally to be controlled by four differing nationalities. It is the only colony that one of those nationalities entered into the conflict primarily not for settlement but for industry to manufacture goods produced from another of the existing colonies. And I believe it must be the only colony that the continental congress delegated the overthrowal of its existing colonial government in order to declare independence from England. From the first colonies upon its shore, only two years after Jamestown the colony of New Jersey seems to be minus its importance in American history and yet it remains the most uniquely established of them all and its history should be the most well known. The facts of the multitudinous unique qualities to its establishment continued to set it apart up until and during the revolution, and its importance in setting forth the compromises that became the constitution are unending, even though its delegates were not necessarily the most prominent.
So some of our colonies were formed by company charters, some were granted charters later by dissenters from those colonies. The bulk of the rest colonies originated as individual proprietorships granted by kings for favors to the crown. Maryland to Lord Calvert; Pennsylvania to William Penn, Georgia to Oglethorpe (who would have his charter revoked). But Carolina (which was one charter) was somewhat unique in that it was a joint grant to eight individuals who had either maintained support to the crown or who had aided in the restoration of Charles II to the monarchy. Two already had ties to the Americas, William Berkeley, former governor of Virginia, and John Colleton whose family had long held title to a large tract in the Bahamas. Two of the others we have already mentioned having also received grants in New Jersey, Lord Berkeley and Sir George Carteret. These proprietors were granted a joint ownership of mineral and game rights, to collect duties, levy taxes, and establish civic authority through their appointed agents. Again they were inefficient in their managerial duties and failed to profit. Carolina failed to attract too much in the way of settlers because the settlers would have failed to substantially benefit themselves. Furthermore the proprietors were unable to quell piratical raids on the coast or to protect the settlers from conflict with Natives. Granted by Charles II in 1665 by 1719 all had returned their rights to the king and they received large cash settlements, barring one. The one was the heirs of George Carteret (who had also clung to their proprietorship in New Jersey). The Carteret’s retained control of what is not today just Granville County in North Carolina but what was then referred to as the Granville district or by the Earl of Granville (a title that been bestowed to Carteret’s heirs) as the “State of Granville”. The area included most of both the eastern portion of the 34th and 35th parallels for 65 miles from the Virginia border southward and is today I believe divided into either five or six counties within North Carolina. . While the Granville’s would continue to profit from the region they did not actually become the appointed governors of North Carolina (that had been separated from the southern part of the Carolina proprietorship in 1712), when Gabriel Johnston became the royal governor he complained that not only did the Granville’s control over half of North Carolina through their agents that Johnston lacked authority over, but that they controlled the only half of North Carolina that was worth being controlled.
When John, Earl of Granville died in 1763 the estate became tied up for a dozen years in the English chancery. By the time Robert, Earl of Granville emerged from the chancery to be the entitled heir of Granville, the revolution had begun, and even though he attempted to reestablish the district via agent Josiah Martin, the war hindered his effort. Robert Earl’s heirs, to whom the district was bequeathed, continued to attempt to contest their rights over the area until the US courts ultimately denied them any continued entitlements in 1801. The Granville region remains one of the leading tobacco producing areas in the nation. At the time of the civil war their tobacco plantations had over 10,000 black slaves working the fields. At the time there were only eight other plantations in the entire nation with at least 300 slaves. Albeit, the Granville District did have more than one plantation, they were exceptionally disproportionately large plantations in terms of the amount of slaves therein. On the other hand, close to half of the non-slave population were actually freed blacks Several of these freedmen were actually descendents of some of the earliest black slaves in Virginia who had been permitted freedom after a term of servitude in the earlier part of British Colonial era in Virginia when there was often a duration of servitude for slaves. So these black persons had established themselves on their own farms in the region even before the Carolina Proprietorship had been established.
Before we leave this survey, since it also my ancestry, I want to mention the Regulator Movement amongst the westerners in North Carolina. Prior to the American revolution in revolt against British taxation, the Regulators took up arms against the government of the North Carolina colony for unjust taxation. This would culminate in the Battle of Alamance near Hillsborough in May of 1771. Despite facing a much larger militia aligned against them, the Regulators decided to pursue battle for their rights. Nevertheless they lost the battle and many were captured. An amnesty was later granted to those who would swear allegiance to the colonial government. My ancestors did not accept the proffered amnesty and descended further into the mountains, seldom venturing beyond the cliffs they isolated themselves upon until the earlier decades in the 20th century, when some began moving into Georgia, and my grandfather and his brothers migrating northward to Indiana. I would later be told the stories by my great-grandmother that none of them had ever met a black person before they began to descend from their mountain cliffs. She informed me that when her sons had brought her to Indiana, they had not known that the United States was even a nation that had broken free from England a hundred and fifty years earlier. They had never seen a movie, experienced electricity, telephones or had ever traveled by any means other than foot. They knew of horses and mules but had never had any, and didn’t even clearly know what they looked like. But they did have a family Bible, and they had continued to teach each generation to read the Bible and enter their family chronology into it. The Bible was also stuffed with written accounts each generation wrote on thick paper primarily made from old clothing. Their first encounters with those encroaching into their environment apparently occurred when prohibition sent tax collectors into their enclaves looking for violators of the prohibition against the use of spirits. As I believe I’ve written in the past, my own grandfather was caught in that snare and sent to prison for two years.
Correction:
I mention in this article that Lewis Morris was the first governor of New York. While he was governor of New York, the reference in the article should have been to the fact that he became the first governor of New Jersey as a sub-colony of New York.
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Ken, this is fascinating! When the series is complete, could you write a bibliographic history of how you amassed such a detailed knowledge?
Separate point--the grammar nazi in me was aroused by this: "amount of slaves". Counting and measuring are two entirely distinct things. This jars me whenever I see it. An "amount of people" properly refers to their total cumulative weight--not their number. (Please excuse my outburst!)